Introductory Speech

 

Of

 

 

Dr. V. V. Bedekar

 

President .

Institute for Oriental Study, Thane

 

 

 

 

Seminar on

 

 

Education in ancient India

 

 

Saturday, the 29th April, 1995

at Thane.

 

 

 

 

Dr. V. V. Bedekar

Dr. Bedekar's Hospital,

Shiv-Shakti, Naupada,

Thane MS - 400 602.

 

 

I heartily welcome you all to this Seminar on the subject, Education In Ancient India, held under the auspices of the Institute for Oriental Study, Thane. Many of you have come from different parts of our country and I am sure your deliberations will dispel many a misconception regarding this vital issue concerning not only an aspect of our social life but the formation of our psyche under alien influence.

Coming to the subject of today's seminar, I must confess that Iain aware of the inadequacy of time available to you to review this important and vast issue even cursorily. The plethora of reports prepared by various commissions & specially in the post-independence era, voluminous in bulk, hardly touches the soul of education concentrating mostly upon the externalia of the educational system like buildings, educational equipment, salaries of staff etc. With regard to the aim of education, all these commissions harp upon the spread of scientific attitude and eradication of superstition as Sanjivani Mantra on the supercilious presumption that Indians lack the former and are hampered by the latter.

I shall not touch here, upon the recent trends of research in the field of what is knowledge, Education, the learning process, cognitive faculties etc. undertaken by Scientists, Philosophers and Sociologists, but would draw attention of the learned assembly to a very crucial turning point In the history of this land, when the system of education was transplanted from Its traditional moorings to Western concepts from indigenous to alien, from vernacular to English and from creativity to soul killing formality.

The Encyclopaedia Americana says,1

"Education is any process by which an individual gains knowledge or insight, or develops attitudes or skills. Formal education is acquired through organised study of instruction, as in school or college. Informal education arises from day-to-day experiences”.

Your deliberations are going to delineate the systems and traditions evolved in this country for providing both these kinds of education from Vedic times till the advent of the British. In spite of the troubled times during the so-called Moghal period in our history, this system and tradition of education was a living force informing our socio-political-cultural theory and practice. Our philosophical, grammatical, architectural, mathematical (from zero to indeterminate equations), astronomical (sphericity of the earth, gravitational attraction, zodiacal signs, Nakshatra-Chakra etc.), metallurgical (Panchadhatu etc.) and naval achievements recorded in literature, epigraphy and monuments are testimony to the viability of the system. What happened, then during the last two hundred years to believe that we lacked scientific attitude and that our religion was a pack of superstitions?

The introduction of the British system of education sounded the death-knell of this time tested tradition of our land which had given sustenance to our forefathers for thousands of years. The educational system imposed on us by the British was based on a firm premise, philosophy and objective. Not that this account of India's glorious past was not know: William Jones, having started the-Royal Asiatic Society in 1785 and there existed accounts describing the contemporary conditions of our culture. Many of these individuals were Europeans and not British. Their accounts provide vivid pictures of the condition of our society from early times upto the 17th and 18th centuries, which include our religious beliefs, scientific and technological achievements and social institutions including education. We also have elaborate historical accounts today of social, moral and educational conditions of Europe including Britain in the 17th & 18th centuries. It is not out of any vainglorious pride in our past that I shall state as a matter of historical record that Europe had, by then, borrowed from us and imbibed the following, not metaphysical speculation but, sciences and technologies of immediate, practical utility

Mathematical and astronomical sciences were the earliest to migrate. The famous, so-called Arabic numerals are really Hindu numerals, which were learnt by Arab Scholars who transmitted them to Europe. The existence of petroleum wells ( around 500 in number ) and the use of petroleum was known in Burma since 1797. Rhinoplasty, considered even today a highly skilful plastic operation is recorded to have been performed on an injured by a Kumbhar (a potter) in Pune, the description of which has appeared in a publication dated 1794. Drill plough was first used in Europe (Austria) in 1662 and was first introduced in England in 1730. Captain Thoss Halcott in his article entitled, "On the Drill Husbandry of South India''(dated 31st Dec 1795 & 10th Jan, 1796) has said,

"Until lately I imagined that the drill plough to be a modern European invention, but, a short time ago, riding over a field I observed a drill plough at work, very simple in its construction, which upon enquiry I find is in general use here, and has been so, time immemorial           "

The same observations have been made by other individuals about the use of drill plough in other parts of the country. There are descriptions, on record, of making of ice (A.D.1774) and production of the best variety of mortar at Madras (A. D. 1732 ). There are accounts of the manufacture of dyes and colours and materials for the waterproofing of the bottoms of ships, the information of which was sent by a Bombay correspondent to the President of the British Royal Society in the year 1790.

Hortus Malabaricus, a 12 volume Encyclopaedia, giving illustrations of 750 species of Indian plants was published in Europe during 1678-93, and its authenticity was certified by Kerala and Konkan Pundits. Such examples of search, study and borrowings by Europeans are innumerable, Export of steel, textile, artefacts of skilled artisans and jewellery is not new to this audience2

Can these achievements be ever possible for society, ridden by class-conflicts, exploitations of all starts or did it take place by imitation or by borrowing or by sheer accident ?

No, these achievements are not possible without an optimum sociopsychological stability in Society.

Is this the picture of a society of low morals, with no science, riddled with rampant illiteracy, superstition, backwardness and barbarism ?

Yes. These are the claims made by Charles Grant, Wilberforce, Mill, Macaulay, Bentinck and many other British Bureaucrats who were the pioneers of Western English Education which was established after neatly burying, deliberately, all information about pre-British Indian achievements, Contribution of Missionaries like William Carey (1767-1837), William Hodge Mill (1792-1853) and John Muir (1810-1882) who were responsible for initial school and college syllabi and opening of educational institutions was considerable in the propagation of the myth of fallen Indian morals, illiteracy and religious superstition. They employed education as a tool for their evangelical designs, albeit they proclaimed their pious intentions of 'educating' Indians and uplifting the down-trodden”

They were prompted by these designs to paint and present to their masters and paymasters in England a dismal picture of Indian Society practising "Sati", 'Devadasi' custom, female infanticide, child-marriages etc. and nothing-else. This was very dark exaggerated lopsided picture, multiplying small drawbacks and decimating high achievements. It is a matter of great regret and anguish, pain and distress that an Indian, currently revered as Father of Modern Scientific India and a great Reformer - none else than Raja Ram Mohan Roy, being more loyal than the king, helped achieve these sinister objectives with enthusiasm and stratagem surpassing these of the one generally held responsible for this state of affairs, Thomas Babbington Macaulay.

Let us cast a glance at the chronology of events that destroyed the Ancient Indian Educational system and established the alien English System. It is traditionally believed that it started, at the time of renewal of East India company's charter (Section43) in 1813. This process was heralded by allotting Rs. 1,00,000/- for

"the revival and improvement of literature, and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the science among the inhabitants of the British territories in India ....."

Rs. 1,00,000/- may appear as a very generous, sumptuous liberality for the noble cause of education. However, the preconditions for making this grant available were 4

"that out of any surplus which may remain of the rents, revenues and profits arising from the said territorial acquisitions, after defraying the expenses of the military, civil and commercial establishments and paying the interest of the debt, in manner hereafter provided, a sum of not less than Rs. one lac in each year shall be set apart ....."

However, examination of records shows that this large (?) amount of money to educate the entire colonial population was not made available till 1823. It is also worthwhile noting that the value of Rs. One lac at that time was around 7 to 10 thousand pound. Lord Macaulay, as member of the Law commission and its Chairman was drawing a salary of more than £10,000/- per annum.

These attempts to westernise Indians in the name of Education are seen to have started since 1793, at the time of the renewal of the Charter of East India Company. They were undertaken by Charles Grant and Wilberforce. The plan was to send missionaries and schoolmasters for "mental” and "moral” reform of Hindus. In 1792Charles Grant wrote an elaborate tract entitled, "Observations on the state of society among the Asiatic subjects of Great Britain particularly with respect to morals and on the means of improving it ". These means were nothing but the introduction of Western education with English as the medium of instruction. Charles Grant Struck a very Philanthropic posture and painted a very dark picture of Indian society in the last portion of this tract. However, he did not succeed, because the Board of Directors also were not convinced of veracity of Grant's description, and while rejecting his plea were constrained to say,

“The Hindus had as good a system of faith and morals as most people, and that it would be madness to attempt their conversion or to give them any more learning or any other description of learning that which they already possess.”

What appeared as MADNESS even to the foreign conquerors was for Raja Ram Mohan Roy "reformist zeal". These efforts of missionaries culminated in the famous minutes of T.B. Macaulay (1835). As stated earlier, credit for these “achievements” goes not only to missionaries but also to zealots like Raja Ram Mohan Roy. However, it must be placed on record that some Orientalists like Warren Hastings, Wilson etc. had opposed these sinister designs. Warren Hastings had founded a Madrasa in Calcutta for Islamic Studies and a Sanskrit College at Banaras. Taking a cue from this, some people tried to establish a Sanskrit College at Calcutta. It is at this stage that we find Raja Ram Mohan Roy opposing, tooth and nail, Governments efforts in founding the Sanskrit College. He wrote a very strong letter on Dec. 11, 1823 and forwarded it to Bishop Hebber to be placed before the Governor-General-in-council, in which he had opposed the founding of the Sanskrit College as he thought that it would perpetuate an antiquated system and would not lead to the extermination of evils and superstitions of Hindu Society. How Raja Ram Mohan Roy's Missionary zeal paved a way for Macaulay's Minute is graphically described by Arthur Mayhew, in his book,5 “Pre-independence Education Policy of India

“It was Ram Mohan Roy and his friends who detected the insidious poison in the Sanskrit College Scheme of the Orientalists and submitted a petition which inaugurated a controversy that was prolonged for more than ten years. Macaulay by his eloquence and wealth of superlative has often been made solely responsible for cutting of Indian education from the roots of National Life. Let it be remembered here that he was not the prime mover, that his intervention was late and that the forces which he represented would probably have been successful without his singularly tactless and blundering championship. The movement towards Anglicisation originated in Missionary and Hindu quarters before Macaulay had begun to sharpen his pen and select his epithets in the land of "exile” whose culture he was to traduce. And it was fostered by Hindu support for many years after he had left India. Far more important than that “master of superlatives” was Ram Mohan Roy whose antecedents career and aspirations won for him, friends among Hindu reformers and Missionary alike, and enabled him unite these bodies against the common enemy”

Macaulay who had no knowledge of India,Indian culture India language, and was too young to understand the complexities of our social organisations, had the arrogant audacity to shape the destiny of this country -saying?

“We are at present a Board of printing books which are of less value than the paper on which they are printed was when it was blank and forgiving artificial encouragements to absurd history, absurd metaphysics, and absurd physics and absurd theology”.

It was Raja Ram Mohan Roy who provided such insolent courage to Macaulay who further ventures to say:

“No Hindu who has received an English Education, ever remains sincerely attached to his religion - It is my firm belief that if our plans of education are followed up there will not be a single idolator among the respectable classes in Bengal thirty years hence, and this will be effected without any effort to proselytise, without the smallest interference in their religious liberty, merely by the natural operation of knowledge and reflection”.

It would be worthwhile to scrutinise and investigate here, that during the 18th century, the so-called superior morality and scientific and technological upper hand claimed by Missionaries vehemently and which was agreed upon also by Hindus, like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, had any truth in it. It was not only untrue but Christianity directly opposed progress of science for centuries. Stories of Copernicus, Gallelio and Bruno are far well known. So Christianity as a religion by any stretch of imagination had no constructive contribution in the advancement of scientific temperament in the West. M.S. Anderson in his book “Europe in the 18th century” says6

“In England by contrast, education for the masses remained throughout this period, comparatively backward. This was because the widespread distrust of strong Central Government made a State Controlled educational system impossible, because the position was complicated by the mutual antipathy of established Church and dissenters and simply because popular demand for education was weak. The Charity school and Sunday school movements made efforts, often devoted and not altogether unsuccessful, to spread tincture of book learning among the lower strata of society, above all in the towns. These attempts, however, were inspired by the desire to combat vice, drunkenness and irreligion, rather than by any belief in destability of knowledge for its own sake”.

The first University text book to be based on the principles of Newtonian physics and mathematics was published at Oxford in 1702. Newtonian physics was accepted very late in France and first scientific work in French to accept Newton's discovery was published in 1742 by the astronomer and mathematician Maupertiris. Academies of science came into existence in Russia (1725), Sweden (1727) and Denmark (1742). The Royal Society in London, during the most of 18th Century was little more than a gentleman's club, says Mr. Anderson (page 388). Anderson further says (p 392)

“To all British Scientists natural phenomena, however, they might be studied, however closely observed & subtly classified, had still their first cause in God. They were still manifestation of his being & nature. Many of the most popular writers and lecturers of science were themselves clergymen”.

In India, Brahmins certainly knew mathematics and Astronomy in the 18th Century, but for missionaries and Ram Mohan Roy they were spreading superstition. Of literacy and reading habits, Anderson writes (p 396)

“It was therefore, quite untypical of the reading of the ordinary peasant or a artisan, who enjoyed none of these advantages. We know little about the reading habits of the 95% or more of Europeans in this period who were not well educated or well-to-do and who did not possess Libraries of which there is some surviving record in wills or inventories”.

The language of European Scholarship and culture of 18th Century Europe was French and not English. Fredrik-II of Prussia ordered in 1743, that the papers read at the academy of Sciences in Berlin should be in French. And only after his death in 1786, the transactions of the academy started in German and French both. In any case it was never in English. By 1850 Britishers had practically destroyed pre-British ancient Indian education system and all Schools, Colleges, their syllabi and examinations were controlled by the Government. In Britain itself, except very few institutions till 1870, hardly there was any State control in these Institutions. In England the first Treasury Grant of 2000 pounds for education was allowed to elementary school in 1832-About 20 years after Wilberforce and other evangelicals had insisted on East India Company making an annual allotment for education to its subjects in India.

There is adequate evidence available now that almost throughout India, there was fairly self-sufficient educational system in the country prior to advent of the British. These are the surveys done by the Britishers themselves in Madras, Bombay and Bengal presidencies. William Adam's report which covered Bengal & Bihar says there seems to exist about one lakh schools in this area in 1830.7 G.W. Leitemer did survey in Punjab around 1882 and was of the opinions that, the spread of education in Punjab is satisfactory. Madras Presidency report belonging to much early period around 1820-1830 and this also gives a detailed description of schools, practically in every village in that presidency. In Bombay presidency in 1824 & 1828 surveys were conducted and results were similar. Though these reports existed and quoted in academic circles occasionally, it was only after Shri Dharampal's book "The Beautiful Tree" 8 which included the survey of Madras Presidency, the value of these reports to understand ancient educational system prior to advent of the British, was realised. His book has embarrassed various committed Scholars. One such Scholar while writing on the indigenous education system in British India expressed his probable uneasiness in the words .9

“These publications have, however, been more reproduction of the original survey, appended to lengthy introduction without any attempt at systematic interpretation of the data. Most of them also betray a fervour of Brahminic patriotism through an undue anxiety to show the institution of indigenous education in benign light, and an unjustified attempt to gloss over its discriminatory dimensions”.

The reports describing the system of indigenous educations prevailed in Bombay presidency which included Gujarat, Maharashtra and part of Karnatak then, were submitted to the then Government in two groups, one in the year 1823- 24 and the second in the year 1828-29. Great educationist Shri R. V. Parulekar has published them in three parts 10.

For details of history of education in early years of British Raj Fisher's Memoir is indispensable for Scholars. It is most unfortunate that the report of education in the city of Pune in 1824 just six years after the departure of Peshwas was submitted to William Chaplin, the Commissioner in the Deccan, but are nor traceable now. The report has stated that there were 222 schools both for primary and higher institutions in the city during this period.

The report of T.B. Jervis (1823-24) on the state of education especially in the districts of South Konkan are elaborate, extensive and detailed in nature and is literally a 'mine' of information. It is very difficult to give all aspects of the report here, but some important findings will be of great help and interest to this audience. It may surprise this audience that a report of 1828-29 describes 281 schools during the period. It would be a matter of surprise to many and shock to ideologically committed scholars and sociologists that prior to the advent of British, there were schools, practically in all villages of province which could satisfy needs of their society and at least 30 to 50% school students were from the non-Brahmin sections of society, presently termed as Other Backward Classes. In the first report of T.B. Jervis for which information was collected in 1820, he has reported 86 schools in the province of south Konkan, out of these 86 schools, 28 were held in temple and private dwellings, 6 were in the houses of teachers and Jervis has reported that even few schools were held in the sheds belonging to barbers, oilmen and potters. Even among the teachers non-Brahmins i. e. Prabhus, Marathas, Kunbis, Vanis, Shimpis percentage was at least 20 to 40%. In the report of Jervis, out of 86, 22 were non-Brahmins in South Konkan, and in Dharwad area, more than 50% teachers were non-Brahmins i,e. 153 teachers out of 291. However these reports do not give any. statistics on depressed classes as most probably they had no access to schooling. Parulekar has noted that in this prohibition all caste's joined and the Brahmins were only one of them. Neither Missionaries had a different or soft attitude towards them, as popularly believed. In Thane town the schools were entirely run by British Government in the 1830s. All caste except manuras and Parwaries (Mahars?) were not permitted. Even in the two charitable schools run by American Missionaries these Parwaries (Mahars ?) were asked to sit outside the school in the Varandha. As stated earlier except these depressed classes, nil other castes had no restrictions of any kind. Shri R.V. Parulekar writes : 11

“It must however be said that as a rule the common schools were not communal in their working and they were open to all who could afford to pay for their schooling except those who belonged to low caste or depressed castes. The schools conducted for Muslim community where Persian or Hindustani (Urdu) was taught, were no doubt exclusively restricted to Muslim children but the Hindu schools were open to the Muslim boys if they wanted to attend them”.

Parulekar has clearly stated : 12

“Although majority of teachers of the common schools of the time were Brahmins, it must be noted that the other castes and communities shared the profession with Brahmins without any hindrance imposed by custom or tradition”.

These reports have also stated very clearly that though Brahmin families took to education and teaching, school-master was never a hereditary occupation. A report of a judge at Ahmedabad states: 13

“The office of school master can-not properly be said to be hereditary. During the time of Maratha Government it was generally taken up by those whose fathers had been so-occupied, but even then others used to establish themselves in the same line. Since the city has been under the British rule, many persons had become school masters, whose ancestors were never so employed and no objection had been taken by Natives to their doing so ".

A graphic description of educational status of Society in the Konkan area can be seen in the statement of Mr. Pendargast which he submitted to Bombay Governor's council in 1821.14

"I need hardly mention what every member of the Board knows as well as I do, that there is hardly a village, great or small, throughout our territories, in which there is not at least one school, and in the larger villages more, many in every town and in larger cities in every division, where young natives are taught reading, writing and Arithmetic, upon a system, so economical, from a handful or two of grain, to perhaps a rupee per month to the schoolmaster; according to the ability of the parents, and at the same time so simple and effectual that there is hardly a cultivator or petty dealer who is not competent to keep his own accounts with a degree of accuracy, in my opinion, beyond what we meet with amongst the lower orders in our own country;* while the more splendid dealers and bankers keep their cake with a degree of ease, consciousness and clearness, I rather think fully to those of any British merchant (Evidence of 1832, p. 468).

" there are schools maintained by the natives in almost every village in Candeish " (Evidence of 1832 p. 2%).

"There are probably as great a proportion of persons in India who can not write and keep simple accounts as arc to be found in European countries" vide Annual Report (1819) of the Bombay Education Society P. 11.

n Schools are frequent amonge native and about everywhere" -sixth report (1820) p. 21.

I would bring to the notice of the learned audience here, that not only indigenous education system was efficient' and adequate to the needs of their society, but it was very economical and suited to their social needs. British while totally wiping out this system were shrewd enough to borrow generously many methods from this indigenous system, I quote Parulekar15

"During the early year & of the 19th century, Dr. Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster introduced a system of instruction in England which is commonly known as "Monitorial" system or the Madras system". The central idea behind the system was 'instructions of scholars by scholars'. The teaching scholars were called  'Monitors'. Under this system of cheap instruction, England made a very great advance in the instruction of her people. It is generally admitted that Dr. Bell got the idea from what he observed in the indigenous schools at Madras and hence the system was called the 'Madras system'. Mr. Lancaster got the idea from Dr. Bell. That the system of instruction (the monitorial system) introduced in England by Lancaster and Bell in the early years of the 19th century was of the Indian origin is admitted in many contemporary documents. The following extract from a Dispatch dated 3rd June 1814 from the Court of Directors to the Governor General in Council of Bengal (Selections of Educational Records, Part 1, p.23 ) is typical" The mode of instruction that time form immemorial has been practised under these masters has received the highest tribute of praise by its adoption in this country, under the direction of the Reverend Dr. Bell, formerly Chaplin a Madras Madras and it has now become the mode by which education is conducted in our national establishments, from a conviction of the facility it affords in the acquisition of language by simplifying the process of instruction".

In the reports  now under consideration, a reference is made by William Chaplin, the Commissioner in the Deccan, to "the Lancester system being originally of Hindu origin". (141). T.B. Jervis recognises that Lancaster "formed his schools on the same (Hindoo) principle (142). He was much convinced about its utility that he declared: "The Hindoo system is good so far as the expense is concerned and that indeed is a great object... in respect to every point of economy, it would be folly to deviate" (143).

Macaulay's dream:

"we must do our best to form a class who may be an interpreter between us and the Millions whom we govern, a class of persons Indian in blood & colour, but English in taste, opinion and words and intellect ".

has come true beyond his expectations. From Raja Ram Mohan Roy almost all subsequent reformers (with few exceptions) impatient to convert this country into a modern, scientific, free of superstition (mostly atheist) strengthen Macaulay in all possible respects. After independence things hardly changed. Nehru, a more ardent supporter of western values, continued the Macaulean psychology of education, firmly rooted in the premise carefully tailored by Charles Grant, Wilberforce, Trevelyan and Raja Ram Mohan Roy that Hindus have low morals, they are illiterate barbarians and have no scientific outlook and their religion is nothing but superstition. The leftist ideology and hopelessly committed scholars in this ideology continued the same myth of backwardness, religious superstition and lack of scientific temperament in the Hindu society. The result with state of education is seen in the present Indian society with state of education lacking totally in creativity is in front of us. Only if we can come out of this colonial and ideologically tutored concept of our culture, and social institution that we can create a viable and self respectable society and nation.l6

HOPE TODAY'S DELIBERATION WOULD BE A MARCH IN THAT DIRECTION.

THANK YOU

 

1.    Encyclopaedia Americana, 1984 Vol. 9 P. 642.

2.    Dharampal, 1971. Indian science and Technology in Eighteenth century. some contemporary European Accounts, Academy of Gandhian Studies, Hyderabad, Sole Distributors : Bharatiya Manisha Peeth C-6-7A, Lawrence Road, New Delhi -110035.

3.    Educational records, selections from Bureau of Education -1 22 Section 43 of the Act, see also report of A. D. Campbell 17/8/1823. Educational record I 65 and Lord Moira's Minute of 1815, Educational record I -24.

4.    Ibid.

5.   Arthar Mayhew, 1988 (reprint). Pre - Independence Educational Policy of India, A Study of British Educational Policy In India, 1835 -1920 And of It's Bearing on National Life and Problems In India To-Day, Archives Books, Post Box 5780, 4E/8, Jhandewalan Ext. New Delhi-110 055 P.12&13.

6.    Anderson, M.S. 1987 (Third Edition) Europe in the Eighteenth Century 1713 -1783,_ Longman, London and New York, P. 382.

7.    DiBona J. 1983 One Teacher, One School The Adaim Report on Indigenous Education in 19th Century India, Biblia Impex Pvt. Ltd. 2/18, Ansari Road. NEW DELHI -110 002.

8.    Dharampal, 1983 The Beautiful Tree Indigenous Indian Education In the Eighteenth century, Biblia Impex Private Limited 2/18, Ansari Road, NEW DELHI -110 002.

9.    Radhakrishnan P. Indigenous Education In British India a Profile, Contributions to Indian Sociology Vol. 24 No.l 1990.

10. Parulekar R. V. Selections from The records of The Government of Bombay Education Part 11819-1852, .Part III 1826-1840 Published resp. in 1953 & 1957 by Asia Publishing House, Bombay.

11. Parulekar R. V. 1945 (reprint 1951) Survey of Indigenous Education In the Province of Bombay 1820-1 1830. Published by The Indian Institute of Education, II Elphinstone Circle, Botawak Bld. Fort, Bombay 1 Page, XXiii.

12. Ibid Pxxiii

13. Ibid Pxxvii

14. Ibidl Pxxi

15. Ibid P xxvi and xxxvii

16. For more details of how British manipulated every indigenous system to their advantage, scholars can read my Introduction to the book Historical Truths and Untruths Exposed, 1991. Published by Itihas Patrika Prakashan, M. Karve Marg, Naupada Thane 400 602.

 

 

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