Of divine forms
TEXT & PHOTOGRAPHS BY BENOY K. BEHL
During the rule of the Kushanas, there was a new focus
in art: the depiction of personalities. |
Buddha head, Kushana period (Government Museum, Mathura).
A gentle and smiling expression marks many Buddha depictions
of this period
THE early art of India embodies deep philosophic concepts.
It takes us on a journey through the development of man's
spiritual thoughts: on a path that seeks the goal o
Beyond the sculpted gateways and railings, beyond
the great entrances of the rock-cut caves, beyond the
surrounding walls of the temples lies the most sophisticated
presentation of the philosophic truth. Here is that
which takes our attention away from the multiplicity
of the forms of the world to the concept of the formless
eternal.
From early times and continuing to this day, in the
mountain regions, stupas are often made by
placing a few pebbles one on top of another. As divinity
is seen in the whole of creation, it is the focus of
our attention upon it that creates an object of worship.
All that there is, is a manifestation of the formless
eternal, and we may see that Truth in any object that
we choose to.
The Buddha, Kushana period, 2nd century A.D., Katra
mound Mathura region (Government Museum, Mathura).
The quality of prana, or inner breath, is evident
in the figure. The quality of animation and life marks
this figure as a masterpiece of Kushana period art.
It was donated by Amoha-Asi, a nun, "for the welfare
and happiness of all sentient beings". This is a common
wish expressed in donative inscriptions at Naga, Jaina
and Buddhist sites of this period.
The followers of the Buddha enshrined his mortal
remains in a number of stupas. Thus began
a tradition that spread to many countries. Later
stupas housed the remains of other great
teachers, their personal belongings and also Buddhist
teachings. Numerous stupas were made in
the Buddhist and Jaina traditions in India for many
centuries. Similarly, there is the marvellous philosophic
concept embodied in the Siva Linga.
The Linga is the mark(with a secondary meaning
as a phallic representation) of the formless eternal
taking on the forms of the world. A great and complex
thought process is marvellously encapsulated in
one of the greatest symbols of the world. For instance,
the great Siva Linga of Tamil Nadu, the Aakasha
Lingam of the Chidambaram temple. There is a curtain
in front of it representing the veils of our illusions.
When we move this aside, there is nothing to be
seen beyond: that is the greatest Siva Linga. Tradition
is still alive in the temple which holds that this
is the finest representation of the Upanishadic
Truth.
In early Indian shrines from the 2nd century
B.C. onwards, the focus was on meditation. The aim
was release from the cycle of the pain of life.
The eternal themes were represented in art, and
personalities were not shown. Generalised depictions
of men and women were seen along with the natural
world. Yakshas and Yakshis embodying
the creative force of nature were a favourite subject.
The first formalised deity, seen from the 2nd century
B.C. onwards, was Lakshmi being lustrated by elephants.
In the meantime, the Buddha, or the Enlightened
One, was alluded to by symbols of his achievement
and of his presence.
The Buddha, Kushana period, 2nd century
A.D., Peshawar Valley, Pakistan (National Museum,
New Delhi). The Gandhara art of the Peshawar Valley
is known for some of the finest sculptures made
in dark grey schist. This statue is typically
Gandharan in style with its long, flowing drapery
with heavy schematic folds.
Forms of the world were presented on railings
and gateways as well as on the exteriors of
rock-cut caves. With the passage of time, forms
of the life of the world were also brought into
the interior of the hall of meditation. However,
in the heart of the shrine, there were no forms.
The gentleness of the figures one passed on
the way to the shrine prepared one, until finally
one could meditate upon that which was formless
and beyond the world of forms, beyond desire
and pain.
In the north, Mathura was strategically placed
at the entrance to the plains of the river Ganga.
Thus, it was a major junction for trade. It
was also a great centre of culture and art.
Under the Kushanas, who ruled from the 1st to
the 3rd century A.D., Mathura became the winter
capital of the empire.
Gandharan representation of the
Mahaparinirvana, Kushana period, Gandhara
region ( Indian Museum, Kolkata). Whereas
earlier art had focussed on the purely spiritual
and philosophic aspects of the message, attention
in Gandhara was more on the life of the Buddha
as a heroic individual. Gandharan representations
are full of the drama of his life story, as
in this depiction of the pathos of the moment
of his passing away. Only the monk Subhadra
is seen peaceful as he is aware of the transitory
nature of all life.
The Kushanas, or the Yeuh-Chih, were
tribes who came from southern China. They
patronised Buddhism and the Brahmanas, as
Indian kings had done before them. However,
theirs was a different vision.
The subject of art in India was eternal
themes, not transient personalities. Trees
and flowers, birds and animals, mythical
creatures, common people, creatures that
combined these different beings, all these
were preented in art. So were Yakshas
and Yakshis, who personified the
spirit and abundance of nature.
Bhikshu Bala's Bodhisattva, Kushana
period, Sarnath (ASI Museum, Sarnath).
The early Buddha and Bodhisattva figures
were based upon the Yakshas of the previous
periods. They are impressive in their
monumentality and frontal formality
Another portrait statue has a similar
inscription, this time bestowing royal
and divine titles upon Emperor Kanishka.
He is dressed as a Scythian, with
padded boots and heavy clothes. The
clothing is not in the Indian style,
where it reveals the body shape.
The cult of the worship of kings
did not last beyond the rule of the
Kushanas. However, in this period
there was a new focus: the depiction
of personalities in art. Images of
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, Jaina tirthankaras,
Siva, Vishnu, Kartikeya an other Hindu
deities were created. These followed
the earlier models of the Yakshas
and N agas.
Queen Maaa's dream (Indian Museum,
Kolkata). In the Gandhara region,
with Greek and other influences,
the focus of art changed in the
Kushana period. Events in the Buddha's
life and depictions of him became
the main subject of art.
Kushana coins present some
of the earliest images of the
Buddha. A Kushana coin also carries
a very early image of Siva, with
his characteristic trident and
with Nandi, the bull who accompanies
him. From the 2nd century B.C.,
there were two Jaina stupas
at Kankali Tila, near Mathura.
Sculpted remains have been found,
which show the close similarity
between the art and symbols of
the Buddhist and Jaina faiths.
Th region also had flourishing
temples dedicated to Naga deities.
An imposing image, over eight
feet (2.44 metres) tall and inscribed
as a Bodhisattva, was installed
at Sravasti around A.D. 100. It
was donated by a bhikshu,
or monk, named Bala. The standing
Bodhisattvas, or Buddhas, carry
forward the formal frontality
of earlier Yaksha figures,
which emphasises their monumentality.
The body displays the softness
of human flesh, unlike muscular
and athletic depictions. A cloth
goes across the left shoulder
and hangs over the arm in very
fine pleats.
Ek Mukhi Siva Linga, Kushana
period (Government Museum, Lucknow).
The Siva Linga is one of the
most profound symbols of humankind.
It is the "mark" of the unmanifest
eternal manifesting itself in
innumerable forms of the world.
Simultaneously, it embodies
the vital forces of nature in
the manifest world.
The form in which the Buddha
was presented was that of
an enlightened being, one
out of many, with 32 attributes
that identified him as such.
The long arms and elongated
ear lobes; the urna,
a mark on the forehead; and
the ushnisha on the
top of the head are some of
the auspicious marks.
A number of images of seated
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have
been found, including a fine
one from the Katra mound.
This was donated by Amoha-Asi,
a nun, “for the welfare
and happiness of all sentient
beings”. This is a common
wish expressed in donative
inscriptions at Naga, Jaina
and Buddhist sites of this
period. The quality of prana,
or inner breath, is evident
in the figure. There is a
quality of animation and life
that marks this figure as
a masterpiece of the Kushana
period art. Behind his head
is a large halo with scalloped
edges, representing the emanation
of light.
LAKSHMI, KUSHANA PERIOD,
Mathura region (National
Museum, New Delhi). The
earliest formalised deity
seen everywhere in Indian
art is Lakshmi. She embodies
the abundant fruitfulness
and bounty of nature
An image of Surya,
who represents the sun,
was found at Kankali Tila.
The image was also made
in the 2nd century B.C.,
in a vihara at
Bhaja in western India.
The boots, jacket and
moustache indicate Iranian
influences.
An architectural fragment
from Mathura shows an
image of a Siva Linga
being worshipped. Several
lingas of this period,
with one face or with
four faces, have been
found. Kartikeya is also
depicted, carrying a spear.
He was later incorporated
into the Hindu pantheon
as the son of Siva.
stupa, the Yakshis
and the trees that they
stand against or grasp represent
nature. It must be remembered
that in Indian thought all
beings, human, animal and
plant, are intrinsically
the same. This kinship of
life is perfectly expressed
in these images, where the
touch of a maiden brings
trees to blossom.
Yakshi with fruit and
urn, Kushana period, from
a stupa railing pillar
(Government Museum, Mathura).
Images of the natural
world met the devotee
as he circumabulated the
stupa
Buddhism reached
Peshawar, in the Gandhara
region, in the 3rd century
B.C. through the emissaries
sent by Emperor Asoka.
This region was a meeting
point of the cultures
that travelled on the
trade routes from China
to the Mediterranean.
Concepts of Indian philosophy,
which placed emphasis
on the renunciation
of worldly desires,
were new to many here.
Kanishka held the
Fourth Great Buddhist
Council in Kashmir.
This was the first time
that Mahayana Buddhism
was given the full support
of royal patronage.
The council was also
significant for making
Sanskrit the main vehicle
for Buddhist scriptures.
The Mahayana school
of thought, which was
far less austere than
the earlier Buddhism,
soon gained popularity
in the Gandhara region
as well as in Central
Asia and China.
Vrikshadevi, Kushana
period, Jaina stupa
railing, Kankali Tila
(Government Museum,
Lucknow). The vitality
and exuberance of
nature is beautifully
expressed in all monuments
of this period that
survived in north
India as well as in
the rock-cut caves
of western India,
such as at Karle
Little remains
of the numerous
Buddhist monuments
that were made in
Kushana times in
the Gandhara region.
However, vast numbers
of the sculptures
of this period have
survived. The stone
these were made
from is the local
grey schist. The
sculptures of this
region show influences
of Mediterranean
and Persian styles.
Instead of the spiritual,
idealised forms
of Indic mainstream
tradition, these
sculptures attempt
to present the appearance
of people in the
world and their
everyday expressions.
The drapery shows
the influence of
Western models.
Whereas in the Mathura
school the figures
are presented in
transparent, light
clothing, here the
garments are made
with heavy folds
and great emphasis
is given to their
plasticity. The
body is more muscular,
in keeping with
Greek and Roman
norms.
Depiction
of torana,
or gateway,
of stupa,
a fragment
of a Jaina
stupa railing,
Kankali Tila,
near Mathura
(Government
Museum, Lucknow).
In ancient
times, the
symbols and
motifs of
the art of
all faiths
in India were
the same.
This depiction
is identical
to the toranas
of Buddhist
stupas of
early times
The worship
of the stupa
continued
in Gandhara.
However,
the stupa
was considerably
smaller
and was
surrounded
by rows
of image
shrines.
These contained
images of
Buddhas
and Bodhisattvas,
and their
large numbers
indicate
the shift
in the emphasis
of worship.
Unlike Gautama
Buddha,
who is beyond
worldly
adornments,
Bodhisattvas
were adorned
with jewellery.
Beyond
the world
of forms,
the stupa
had earlier
been kept
plain. Now,
narrative
panels relating
the life
of the Buddha
were placed
on it, at
the base.
The Four
Great Events
in the Buddha’s
life were
presented
most often.
Other incidents
and legends
from his
life were
also introduced.
Here, the
emphasis
became more
on the drama
of life
in the ephemeral
world. Human
life, personified
in the Buddha,
before and
after enlightenment,
became the
vehicle
of the message.
Depictions
in the Gandhara
region significantly
dramatised
the events
of the Buddha’s
life and
presented
them with
charged
emotions.
Woman's
Shringhar,
Kushana
period,
scene
on a pillar
railing
(Government
Museum,
Mathura).
The grace
and delicacy
of the
human
form is
sensitively
expressed
in this
scene,
which
meets
the worshipper's
eye as
he goes
around
the stupa
The
first
of the
Four
Great
Events
to be
presented
in the
narrative
sequences
that
were
created
was
the
birth
of the
Buddha.
Here,
Queen
Maya
is made
in the
continuing
tradition
of Yakshis,
who
stand
beneath
trees.
The
name
Maya
means
“the
illusory
nature”
of the
world
of forms
and
is there
as a
constant
reminder
for
us.
At
the
event
of his
enlightenment,
the
Buddha
is depicted
as meditating
under
a pipal
tree.
Mara,
which
means
“to
kill”,
represents
the
turbulence
of desires
within
us.
Mara
and
his
army
are
shown
attacking
the
Buddha
with
a variety
of weapons.
The
Buddha
remains
serene.
The
first
sermon
is depicted
with
deer
to indicate
the
location
at the
deer
park
at Sarnath.
The
final
Great
Event
is the
Parinirvana
of the
Buddha,
when
he leaves
behind
the
pains
and
shackles
of his
earthly
body.
The
expressions
of grief
of his
followers
are
dramatic.
Only
one,
the
monk
Subhadra,
is peaceful
as he
is aware
of the
transitory
nature
of all
life.
Naga
Deities,
Kushana
period,
horizontal
beam
(Government
Museum,
Mathura).
Nagas
are
among
the
earliest
deities
to
be
depicted.
They
are
seen
in
the
art
of
all
religious
faiths.
One
of
the
most
dramatic
contributions
of
the
Gandhara
region
to
Buddhist
art
is
the
depiction
of
Siddhartha
during
his
period
of
extreme
asceticism.
This
depiction
shows
the
Buddha
severely
emaciated,
with
bones
and
veins
sticking
out.
It
is
an
exaggerated
presentation
of
dramatic
proportions.
The
narrative
depictions
and
figures
in
the
art
of
Gandhara
were
formulated
by
the
end
of
the
1st
century
A.D
The
sculpture
flourished
at
its
best
in
the
2nd
and
3rd
centuries.
The
production
of
the
Buddhist
art
of
Gandhara
came
to
an
abrupt
end
in
the
5th
century
with
the
invasion
of
the
Huns.
In
the
meantime,
the
tradition
of
art
in
the
northern
plains
of
India
continued
to
evolve.
Mathura
continued
as
a
vital
centre
of
art.
The
sculptures
made
there
have
been
found
far
and
wide.
This
is
noteworthy,
as
in
this
period,
it
was
the
sculptors
who
were
usually
known
to
travel
and
not
the
artworks,
which
were
made
in
heavy
stone.
These
were
obviously
used
as
models
for
the
art
of
other
regions.
Vishnu,
Kushana
period
(Government
Museum,
Mathura).
In
this
period,
forms
were
created
of
the
many
deities
of
the
Indic
traditions.
These
became
pan-Indian
representations
of
philosophic
ideas
and
concepts
that
continue
to
present
times.
The
portrayal
of
deities
had
become
central
to
Indian
art.
These
deities
were
the
personifications
of
qualities.
By
meditating
upon
them,
one
can
awaken
the
best
that
is
within
one.
This
concept
of
deities
travelled
from
India
to
other
countries
of
Asia.
It
took
deep
root
everywhere,
and
to
this
day
the
puja,
or
the
adoration
of
deities,
continues
in
these
lands.
These
graceful
representations
move
and
transport
us
far
from
worldly
concerns
to
a
peaceful
realm
within.
They
are
a
path
to
take
us
eventually
to
a
realisation
of
the
formless
eternal.
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