Ancient Skeletal Evidence for
Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.)
Gwen Robbins Malcolm D. Schug1*, V. Mushrif Tripathy2, V. N.
Misra3, R. K. Mohanty2, V. S. Shinde2, Kelsey M. Gray1,41
University, Pune, India, North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro,
North Carolina, United States of America Department of Anthropology,
Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, United States
of America, 2 Department of Anthropology, Deccan College, Deemed3
Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies, Deccan
College, Deemed University, Pune, India, 4 Department of Biology,
University of Abstract Background:
worldwide.
The timing of first infection, geographic origin, and pattern
of transmission of the disease are still under
investigation. Comparative genomics research has suggested Late
Pleistocene before spreading to Europe and the rest of the World.
The earliest widely accepted evidence for leprosy is in Asian
texts dated to 600 B.C.Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease
caused by Mycobacterium leprae that affects almost 250,000 peopleM.
leprae evolved either in East Africa or South Asia during theMethodology/Principal
Findings: millennium B.C. in India. A middle aged adult male skeleton
demonstrates pathological changes in the rhinomaxillary region,
degenerative joint disease, infectious involvement of the tibia
(periostitis), and injury to the peripheral skeleton. The presence
and patterning of lesions was subject to a process of differential
diagnosis for leprosy including treponemal disease, leishmaniasis,
tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, and non-specific infection.We report
an analysis of pathological conditions in skeletal remains from
the secondConclusions/Significance: represents the oldest documented
skeletal evidence for the disease.
Our results indicate that Vedic burial traditions in cases of
leprosy were present in northwest India prior to the first millennium
B.C. Our results also support translations of early Vedic scriptures
as the first textual reference to leprosy. The presence of leprosy
in skeletal material dated to the post-urban phase of the Indus
Age suggests that if possibly during the third millennium B.C.
at a time when there was substantial interaction among the Indus
Civilization, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. This evidence should be
impetus to look for additional skeletal and molecular evidence
of leprosy in India and Africa to confirm the African origin of
the disease.Results indicate that lepromatous leprosy was present
in India by 2000 B.C.
This evidenceM. leprae evolved in Africa, the disease migrated
to India before the Late Holocene,Citation:
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669Robbins G, Tripathy VM, Misra
VN, Mohanty RK, Shinde VS, et al. (2009) Ancient Skeletal Evidence
for Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.). PLoS ONE 4(5): e5669.Editor:
Michael Petraglia, University of Cambridge, United KingdomReceived
February 24, 2009; Accepted April 25, 2009; Published May 27,
2009Copyright: unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
2009 Robbins et al. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits Funding: and the University of Oregon Graduate School
(http://gradschool.uoregon.edu/)
funded this research. Malcolm Schug is also supported by NIH/NICHD
1R15HD057570-01. The funders had no role in study design, data
collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of
the manuscript.The American Institute of Indian Studies (http://www.indiastudies.org/),
the George Franklin Dales Foundation, Fulbright (http://fulbrightonline.org/),Competing
Interests:
* E-mail: Robbinsgm@appstate.edu
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.IntroductionLeprosy
is a debilitating but treatable disease caused by infection with
of leprosy are focused primarily on images from Biblical or
Medieval times, one quarter of a million people worldwide were
still suffering from the disease in 2007primarily in rural
areas of Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Cote DIvoire, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Mozambique, Myanmar,Nepal,
Nigeria, Philippines and Sudan [1]. The history of leprosy is
interwoven with civilization itself [2].
An understanding of the origin and transmission routes of this
disease can potentially lead
to new insights about the evolution of infectious diseases and
eradication efforts. However, the disease is difficult to culture
vitro the origin, initial transmission routes, and timing for
the spread of the disease in the Old World. The earliest textual
references to leprosy are found in protohistoric texts, including
the Egyptian Ebers papyrus dated to 1550
B.C. [3]. It has been suggested that there are references to the
disease in Sanskrit hymns of the first millennium B.C. [4] and
the Old and New Testaments of the Bible [5,6]. However, this evidence
is controversial [3,5,6] and the
earliest widely accepted references to the disease are from much
later sources: South Asian texts Mycobacterium leprae. Although
popular conceptionsinand much about leprosy is still poorly understood,
includingAtharva Veda composed before theSushruta Samhita and
KautilyasArthashastra accounts of the Greek author Nanzianos
[8], a 3
text Celsus and Pliny the Elder [5,6,10]. Historians of the disease
have maintained that leprosy originated in the Indian subcontinent
and spread to Europe after the fourth century B.C. [5,6,11,12,13]
but the disease did not become a serious public health problem
in Europe until the Middle Ages [10]. Asylums were established
by the 7 France [14] and skeletal evidence for the disease is
well documented for Medieval European skeletal collections from
the United Kingdom [10,15,16,17], Denmark [18], Italy [19], Czech
Republic [14], and Hungary [20,21].dated to the 6th century B.C.
[4,7], 4th centuryrd century ChineseShuihudi Qin Jia [9], and
1rst century A.D. Roman accounts ofth century inPLoS ONE |
1 May 2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669Although urbanization has
traditionally been considered requisite for the spread of the
disease in the Old World [8], genomics research has indicated
a Late Pleistocene model for origin and transmission out of Africa
[12]. Archaeological evidence for the disease in Africa and Asia
in prehistory has also provided indications that the disease has
ancient roots. Skeletal
evidence of leprosy has been documented in the 2 in Roman period
Egypt [22,23], the 1Uzbekistan [24], Nubia in the 5nd century
B.C.rst millennium B.C. inth century B.C. [25], and Thailandcirca
(Israel) are from the 1 was no skeletal evidence for the disease
in South Asia.We report here on skeletal evidence for leprosy
from 2000 B.C. at the site of Balathal (24 Udaipur in the contemporary
state of Rajasthan, India (Figure 1a).
There are two phases of occupation represented at
Balathal, a small occupation in the Early Historic period (cal.
B.C. 760 - A.D. 380) and a large Chalcolithic settlement (cal.
B.C. 37001820) [30]. The Chalcolithic people of Balathal
lived in stone or mud-brick houses, made wheel thrown pottery,
copper implements, and practiced dry field agriculture focused
on barley ((Harappan influences in the classical tan ware ceramics,
which resemble Harappan red ware in manufacture, fabric, firing,
and vessel forms [31]. Copper objects include razor blades, knives,
chisels, arrow heads, spearheads, and axes. Two burials were recovered
from the 19941997 excavations of the Chalcolithic depositindividuals
1997-1 and 1997-2. Three additional burials were recovered in
the 19992002 excavations of the Early Historic periodindividuals
1999-1, 1999-2, and 1999-3 [32]. This paper concerns individual
1997-1 who was buried inside a stone enclosure at Balathal. The
stone enclosure was a Chalcolithic construction overlain by an
undisturbed layer (layer 5) of sterile, white ashy soil 2030
cm in thickness. This sterile layer separated Chalcolithic from
Early Historic deposits over the entirety of the mound. This layer
accumulated over a span of 1000 years from 1800800 B.C.
during a time of increasingly aridity in western India [33,34,35,36,37].
The enclosure (500 m at the eastern periphery of the settlement.
The walls measure 27 thick, constructed of mixed clay, silt, brickbats
and bricks. The walls of the stone structure are thickest at the
base (6.5 m thick) and taper (to 4 m thickness) toward the top
of the construction, which along with the platform foundation,
is a construction style that resembles Indus citadel construction
at Kuntasi and Rojdi in Saurashtra, Gujarat [31]. A radiocarbon
date from Layer 13 in Trench E4 (Figure 2) dates the earliest
deposits of ash to 3350 B.C. (cal. B.C. 36203100). The presence
of monumental architecture and new ceramic styles at Balathal
from 24001700 B.C. has been interpreted as evidence for
contact with the Indus civilization
during this phase [33]. Radiocarbon dates of the stratified layers
in the excavated site provide definitive evidence that the skeleton
was buried between 25002000 B.C. Inside the stone enclosure
there are stratified layers of vitrified ash from burned cow dung
that appears to have been thrown into this space from the top
of the stone wall (Figure 1b). Individual 1997-1 was interred
in a tightly flexed posture, on its left side within undisturbed
stratified layers of the
burned cow dung (at a depth of 2.66 m, in layer 7 of the Northeast
Quadrant of trench E3). There are 45 radiocarbon dates for the
entire site of Balathal, 30 from the Chalcolithic layers, perhaps
the most complete assessment of radiocarbon chronology for any
South Asian site. All of the dates from within the stone enclosure
were from the Chalcolithic period [30], which spanned the calibrated
date range of 37001800 B.C. according to 25 radiocarbon
dates [30,33]. Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from charcoal
recovered from Layer 7 in the stone enclosure. A
date of 2000 B.C. (cal. B.C. 22001980) was obtained from
trench F4. A date of 2550 B.C. (cal. B.C. 28302310) was
obtained from Layer 7 in trench D4. Thus the skeleton was buried
sometime between 25002000 B.C.300 B.C. [26]. The earliest
documented cases in West Asiarst century A.D. [27,28,29]. Previously
thereu439N 73u599E), located 40 km northeast ofHordeum vulgare)
and wheatTriticum spp.). The Chalcolithic deposit demonstrates
evidence of2) was built637 m in length and it was built around
a foundation 70 cmMethodsIndividual 1997-1 was inventoried and
described [32] using standard macroscopic techniques in bioarchaeology
[38]. This individual is estimated to have been a male based on
pelvic architecture [39], a determination supported by skeletal
size and robusticity. The innominates are fragmentary but the
right and left auricular surfaces, the left sciatic notch, and
the right pubis are
preserved. There is no pre-auricular sulcus and the sciatic notch
is narrow. The right pubic bone has a narrow sub-pubic angle and
a rhomboid shape, indicating that this individual was male. Age
wasFigure 1. The excavation site in Balathal. excavations within
the stone enclosure where skeleton 1997-1 was located. This individual
was interred in the Chalcolithic deposit (layer 7) of stratified
layers of burned cow dung. Associated radiocarbon dates indicate
an antiquity of cal B.C. 2000. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669.g001
Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.) PLoS ONE | 2 May
2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669A) A map of India showing the
location of Balathal and a view of the lower town. B) Photograph
of theFigure 2. Plan view of the Chalcolithic occupation at the
site of Balathal.
19941997 excavation seasons. The skeleton was uncovered
in layer 7 of quadrant E3 and the radiocarbon date of 2000 B.C.
was obtained in layer 7 of quadrant F4, both of which are within
the stone enclosure. The Early Historic phase is not represented
here as that portion of the site was excavated in 19992002.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669.g002 Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.)
PLoS ONE | 3 May
2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669Balathal Phases IIII Chalcolithic
structures uncovered during theestimated based on the pubic symphysis
[40] and dental attrition [41]. The form of the pubic symphysis
indicates that this individual was 37 suffered from antemortem
tooth loss, which combined with other
oral pathologies (described below) could certainly influence the
amount of wear on the remaining teeth [32]. The technique yielded
an age estimate of 35 the estimate from the pelvis. The length
of the humerus provided
an estimate for stature of 1.78 diagnosis was undertaken through
a comparison of the presence and patterning of lesions in the
skeleton with expectations from the paleopathology literature.+/25
years old when he died. This individual+/210 years, which is consistent
with+/20.04 meters [42]. DifferentialResultsThis individual was
preserved with a fairly complete skull but the postcranial skeleton
is incomplete and fragmentary [32]. Evidence for bone pathology
on the facial skeleton includes erosion/remodeling of the lateral
and inferior margins of the nasal aperture, complete atrophy of
the anterior nasal spine, bilateral osteolytic lesions at the
infraorbital region of the maxilla, evidence
for infection in macroporosity of the supraorbital region at glabella,
and resorption of the anterior alveolar region of the
maxilla (Figure 3a). The palatine process of the maxilla also
demonstrates pathological changes including pitting near the
midline and in the alveolar region indicating superficial inflammation
affected regions that had not already resorbed (Figure 3b). Antemortem
tooth loss affected the majority of the maxillary teeth, with
only the left first molar and fourth premolar remainingin situ
this molar but there is no other evidence of pulp chamber exposure
or abscessing. Slight traces of the alveoli remain for the right
canine, third premolar, second and third molars and the right
second molar is present as an isolated tooth. The molar roots
demonstrate a thickening of the apices indicative of hypercementosis.
Antemortem tooth loss and alveolar resorption has also affected
the mandible (Figure 4) but eight mandibular teeth
remain right third premolar, and the right third molar. Alveolar
resorption and passive eruption in the anterior mandible has exposed
an average of 7 mm of root surface in the incisors and canines.
Resorption in the left posterior mandible has obliterated
the alveoli and only a thin segment of the mandibular corpus remains.
In the postcranial skeleton, there is evidence for extensive degenerative
disease with marginal osteophytes affecting most of the joint
surfaces present, including the right and left glenoid fossae
of the scapulae, left humerus (proximal epiphysis: head and trochanters),
right and left ulnae (lunar and radial notches), left radius (distal
epiphysis), the vertebral ends of the right and left ribs, left
innominate (around the perimeter of the acetabulum), the right
and left femoral heads, and the proximal end of the left tibia
(lateral condyle). The fourth through the seventh cervical vertebrae
had severe degenerative changes including ventral wedging, osteophytic
lipping on the margins of the centra and on the superior and inferior.
There are two large periapical abscesses on either side ofin situright
and left central and lateral incisors, canines,Figure 3. The cranium
of individual 1997-1. erosion/remodeling of the margin of the
nasal aperture, including the anterior nasal spine, bilateral
necrosis of the infraorbital region of the maxilla, and resorption
of the alveolar region of the maxilla with associated antemortem
tooth loss. B) Inferior view of the maxilla demonstrates pathological
changes to the palatine process including pitting near the midline
and in the alveolar region. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669.g003
Leprosy in India (2000 B.C.)
PLoS ONE |
4 May 2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669A) Anterior view demonstrates
bilateral erosive lesions at the supraorbital region and glabella,articular
surfaces, and vertebral ankylosis, or fusion of the cervical
vertebrae (Figure 5a). Similar changes were noted on the lumbar
vertebrae (L3L5). The left pisiform is present and there
is a fracture on the articular facet for the triquetral (Figure
5b). The proximal half of the left and right tibiae are present
and the compact bone surface on the right is irregular and evidence
for infection (periostitis) is present (Figure 5c) The distal
end of the right radius, ulna, and left triquetral are present
and show no evidence of pathology. Many of the elements in the
distal ends of the legs are missingthe distal tibiae, fibulae,
and many of the foot bones are missing or damaged postmortem More
specifically, the left medial and intermediate cuneiforms and
cuboid are present but damaged postmortem. All five right metatarsals
are present though they have also suffered destruction of the
articular ends. Seven pedal phalangeal fragments are also present
but demonstrate no pathological modification. The distribution
of skeletal pathologies is key to a diagnosis of leprosy [6].
We expect leprosy to include changes to the skull and the postcranial
skeleton: cortical inflammatory changes of the palatine
process of the maxilla, diaphyseal cortical surface, and intra-articular
cortical surface [43]. The principle change to the
skull with leprosy is rhinomaxillary syndrome, which involves
loss of bone around the pyriform aperture, destruction of the
nasal spine, and loss of bone at the anterior alveolar process
[5,6,18,44,45]. Leprosy is also associated with pathological remodeling
of the facial skeleton at the nasal conchae, infraorbital, and
palatal regions, including pitting of the cortical surface indicating
increased osteoclast activity and/or bone necrosis [46]. In the
Balathal skeleton, we have clear evidence of rhinomaxillary syndrome
and bilateral expression of infection in the splanchnocranium.
These changes are specifically associated with lepromatous leprosy.
Unilateral facial lesions are more common in the
tuberculoid form of leprosy [43]. There is evidence of a slight
amount of pitting at the midline on the palatine process of the
maxilla but no evidence of perforation, although the dorsal part
is broken. Unfortunately, the nasal conchae are missing postmortem.Figure
4. Anterior view of the mandible from individual 1997-1. antemortem
tooth loss, and a small apical abscess at the left third premolar.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669.g004The mandible
demonstrates root exposure, alveolar resorption,Figure 5. Elements
demonstrating pathological conditions in the postcranial skeleton
of individual 1997-1. cervical vertebrae (C3C7) demonstrates
degenerative changes including ventral wedging, osteophytosis,
and ankylosis. B) Three views (from the radius, from the triquetral,
and the palmar-distal surface) of the left pisiform demonstrating
a fracture on the articular surface for the triquetral. C) Lateral
view of the tibia midshaft. Arrow points to periostitis on the
compact bone surface. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005669.g005 Leprosy
in India (2000 B.C.)
PLoS ONE |
5 May 2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669A) Left lateral view
of thePostcranial manifestations of leprosy take two forms: direct
bacterial invasion by contact with infected elements and injury
to
appendages related to leprous autonomic neuropathy [46]. The former
can be manifest in non-specific inflammatory changes at multiple
sites while the latter can be manifest in evidence for traumatic
injury in wrist, hand, ankle, and foot bones. Injuries to extremities
are not direct evidence for leprosy but they do corroborate the
other evidence as they can be associated with the neuropathy accompany
infection with leprosy [6,47,48]. For this individual from Balathal,
postcranial pathologies include degenerative changes in the spine
and diarthrodial joints, infectious involvement of the lower leg,
and evidence for injury to the left wrist. Evidence of direct
involvement of the hand and foot bones is
unavailable although absence of many hand and foot bones could
be explained by bone absorption, which would leave the bones more
fragile and likely to degrade after burial. We argue here that
these changes are strong evidence for the
manifestations of leprosy in 1997-1. Other potential diagnoses
include treponemal infection, leishmaniasis, sinus and oral infections,
tuberculosis, osteomyelitis and non-specific infection in the
post-crania. In cases of treponemal disease, remodeling of the
nasal aperture, including loss of the nasal spine, can occur [49].
However, this individual demonstrates no evidence of other diagnostic
criteria for adult treponemal infection including caries sicca,
widespread periostitis in the axial and appendicular skeleton,
thick or irregular long bones, or saber tibiae [5,50]. Periodontal
disease and/or caries can lead to antemortem tooth loss and destruction
of the alveolar bone in the maxilla and the mandible [51]. Oral
infections and rhinomaxillary sinusitis can cause inflammatory
changes to the rhinomaxillary region [52]. Leishmaniasis can also
cause destructive lesions of the face, particularly periosteal
rections around the nasal spine [50]. However, antemortem tooth
loss, oral infections, and leishmaniasis are not known to cause
destruction of the pyriform aperture and nasal spine, which are
diagnostic criteria for leprosy and are present in individual
1997-1.
This individual does not demonstrate some of the classic manifestations
of tuberculosis, a chronic infection by a related
group of related respiratory system or the digestive tract [50].
Individual 1997-1 demonstrates vertebral ankylosis, which can
be associated with spinal tuberculosis in the adult skeleton.
However, this individual from Balathal does not demonstrate other
pathognomic changes of chronic tuberculosis such as osteoporotic
changes in the thoracic and lumbar vertebral centra or kyphosis.
In cases of tuberculosis, ankylosis can also affect the knees
and hip as a result
of septic arthritis [53]. The pathological changes to the joint
surfaces in individual 1997-1 are confined to marginal osteophytes
that are typical of degenerative joint disease and/or advanced
age.
There is no evidence in individual 1997-1 for involucrae,
or sequestering of necrotic bone lesions typical of osteomyelitis
nor for infectious involvement of the ribs or spine [5,6,50].
In the postcranial skeleton, non-leprous osteomyelitis is a product
of haematogenous spread of bacteria (usually Mycobacteria, often
transmitted through theStaphylococcus orStreptococcus characterized
by intermedullary abscess and cloaca formation in the spine, ribs,
femur, tibia [43,50]. Individual 1997-1 does demonstrate periostitis
in the tibia that could result from leprosy
or some other, non-specific infection. Given the patterning of
lesions, the absence of key diagnostic criteria for treponemal
infection, tuberculosis, and osteomyelitis, it is argued here
that this skeleton represents the oldest example of lepromatous
leprosy in the world.) often as a result of injury. This condition
isDiscussionWhile it has long been thought that leprosy originated
in the Old World [5], less is known about the origin and prehistoric
transmission routes for leprosy than other related infectious
diseases [53]. Our evidence supports Sanskrit translations of
theAtharva Veda
that this ancient text is the earliest historical reference to
the disease, its pathogenesis and treatment. Born
by night art thou, O plant, dark, black, sable. Do thou, that
art rich in colour, stain this leprosy, and the grey spots!
The
leprosy which has originated in the bones, and that which has
originated in the body and upon the skin, the white mark begotten
of corruption, I have destroyed with my charm. (pg.
19)
As the Sanskrit word leprosy and tuberculosis (earliest
text to infer a connection between the two conditions, at
least in terms of treatment. It is not common to find adult burials
after 2000 B.C. In contrast, infants and children under 5 years
of age are common in peninsular sites. These features of second
millennium burial practice are suggestive of Vedic tradition.
Given this, it is interesting to note that it is customary in
Vedic tradition in parts of India to bury lepers alive [54,55]
rather than cremate their bodies, which as diseased, are not considered
an appropriate sacrifice to Hindu Gods [54]. The biological evidence
presented here indicates that similar mortuary behavior for people
with leprosy was present at a rural Chalcolithic village in northwest
India by the beginning of the second millennium B.C. As far as
we are aware, this burial from Balathal is also the earliest example
of an individual buried in vitrified ash from cow dung prior to
the ash circle burials of the Southern Neolithic. Large stratified
deposits of ash are common in the Southern Neolithic ash mounds
of the South Deccan and Northern Dharwar region of the contemporary
state of Karnataka. Over 100 ash mound sites have been identified
as belonging to the Southern Neolithic period but they are not
very well understood
[56]. The most common interpretation of the ash mounds based on
excavations at Budihal and Utner is that they are remains of cattle
pens or efforts to rid settlements of cow dung [56]. One alternative
hypothesis is that they represent remains from funerary practices
[57]. Some of these ash mounds are associated with megalithic
monuments, thousands of which cover the landscape of peninsular
India. These stone circle burials are occasionally found near
ash circle burials but these are a less common tradition in the
southern Iron-Age (800500 BC). The occasional presence of
ash
circle burials in South India has been interpreted as evidence
for integration of burial traditions from the Chalcolithic and
Iron Age [57]. The evidence from Chalcolithic Balathal also serves
as a bridge between northwestern Chalcolithic traditions and the
burial practices of Southern India in the first millennium B.C.
Evidence for leprosy in India at 2000 B.C. can be used to address
hypotheses about prehistoric transmission models for the disease.
Although leprosy is often considered to have a recent origin [5,6,44],
analysis of rare single nucleotide polymorphisms in contemporary
samples of regions [12] identified two strains of leprosy segregating
in Asia (predominantly Type I) and east Africa (Type II). Because
of the low frequency of the Type II strain in Asia, and its high
frequency in East Africa, one scenario for leprosys origin
is that Type II evolved first in East Africa (before 40,000 B.C.)
and was later transmitted to Asia (evolving into Type I) and Europe
(evolvingthat reference leprosy [4] and supports the suggestionkushtha
referred to a plant used to treatrajayaksma) [7], the Atharva
Veda is also theM. leprae from worldwide geographicLeprosy in
India (2000 B.C.)
PLoS ONE |
6 May 2009 | Volume 4 | Issue 5 | e5669into Type III), which is
also common in West Africa and the Americas [12]. Alternatively,
the Type II strain may have evolved from the Type I strain in
Asia much more recently and was then transmitted out of Asia,
into Africa and Europe [8]. Small sample sizes and potentially
biased demographic sampling of M. lepraefrom contemporary populations
in the comparative genomics study could explain the absence of
the Type II strain in South Asia (n =4). Sampling issues or fixation
of the Type II strain in East
Africa (n= 2), combined with contemporary eradication efforts
in India may have lead to an underestimate of the putative ancestral
Type II strains historical prevalence in India, and the
derived Type I strains historical prevalence in East Africa.
The Late Holocene transmission scenario is more compatible with
the natural history of
contact and may have spread to East Africa during the development
of urban life and large inter-continental trade
networks during the height of the Indus civilization and the Middle
Asian Interaction Sphere [58]. The Middle
Asian Interaction Sphere is a term used to describe
political and economic contacts between South and West Asian Bronze
Age peoples in the third millennium B.C. There are four core areas
involvedMeluhha in the Indus Valley, Turan in Central Asia,
Mesopotamia in the Fertile Crescent, and Magan on the Arabian
Peninsula. The evidence for inter-regional interaction includes
textual sources from Mesopotamia indicating trade relationships
with Meluhha from the Early Dynastic Period (29002373 B.C.)
to the time of Hammurabi (17921750 B.C.). The interpretation
of
Meluhha as Indus is supported by evidence
for trade in raw materials, common artifact styles and motifs
among the two regions . In addition, contact among Mesopotamia
and the Egyptians began prior to the Early Dynastic period in
Egypt (30502686 B.C.). Although leprosy existed in Europe
by 400 B.C. [13] it did not become widespread throughout the urban
centers of that continent until the Medieval period, a time of
expanding trade networks [6]. We argue that if leprosy evolved
in Africa in the Pleistocene [12], it is unlikely to have spread
into Asia and become a serious health issue until the late Holocene,
when South Asia and Northeast Africa were part of a larger regional
trade network that stretched across the Arabian Sea. We argue
that transmission ofM. leprae, which thrives on humanM. leprae
millennium B.C., when India had extensive, wide-ranging networks
for movements of peoples, goods, and potentially infectious diseases.
This is a more likely time for transmission of communicable diseases
such as leprosy than the Late Pleistocene migrations proposed
by Pinhasi et al. [8] and thus supports the interpretation of
the genetic data proposed by Monot et al. [12]. Further research
should be performed to determine the geographic origin of the
disease using an integrated approach that examines paleopathology
and ancient DNA. Paleopathological evidence for the disease should
be examined in the skeletal collections belonging to Indus Age
sites. Urban centers in the height of the Indus Age and post-urban
sites occupied in the second millennium B.C. should be of particular
interest. In addition, the skeletal material from Balathal and
from Indus sites should be investigated for evidence of ancient
DNA from the between Asia and Africa is most likely in the thirdMycobacterium
evidence in Egyptian skeletons from the second or third millennium
B.C. Although the first skeletal evidence from Dakhleh Oasis places
the disease in Egypt only after 400250 B.C. [23], the Ebers
papyrus has been interpreted as evidence of more ancient knowledge
of the disease by 1550 B.C. [3]. Assuming that DNA from the genetic
comparison of the strain from Balathal and additional skeletal
specimens may provide new insights into the origin of the disease
if a relationship could be demonstrated with either the
Type I or II strains previously identified [12]. Until the origin
of leprosy is confirmed through additional research, the significance
of this individual from Balathal is that it marks the earliest
skeletal evidence for lepromatous leprosy, demonstrating its presence
in a North Indian population during a time of substantial interaction
among populations throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Africa..
There could also be well-preserved molecularMycobacterium can
be obtained from individual 1997-1,AcknowledgmentsThe authors
would like to thank all of those who have participated in the
excavation and analysis of Balathal and all members of the local
community who helped make this project possible. Thanks to Charlotte
Roberts, Vitor Matos, and Jay Stock for providing comments on
this manuscript. Thanks to Drs. Lukacs and Walimbe for advice
and assistance with the collections. Thanks to the support staff
at the American Institute of Indian Studies Office, Pune and Delhi.Author
ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: GMR. Performed
the experiments: GMR VMT. Analyzed the data: GMR VMT. Wrote the
paper: GMR KMG MS. Principle Investigator for Balathal Archaeological
Site: VM. Co-Principle Investigator, Balathal: RM VS.References
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