Interview:
Out on a limb over language
19 January 2008
Liz Else
Lucy Middleton
Linguist Daniel Everett went to Brazil as a young Christian
missionary to work with the Pirahã indigenous people.
Instead of converting them, he told Liz Else and Lucy Middleton,
he lost his faith and his family, and provoked a major intellectual
row
We
hear you've had some unusual visitors recently.
Two
Hollywood producers flew out to see me - with a letter from
Larry Turman, who produced The Graduate. They're interested
in the story of my life. I'm also waiting to hear whether
the Brazilian government will permit PBS Nova and the BBC
to make a documentary about the Pirahã, who live
in the Amazon basin. They want to go to the village where
I've lived and worked for nearly 30 years.
How
did you get involved with the Pirahã?
My
wife Keren and I set out to become missionaries, but it
didn't work out that way. We had to learn the language to
work there but I became more and more fascinated by it,
and eventually studied linguistics at "real" universities.
After many years of living with the Pirahã I've learned
a lot about their language and the problems it poses for
linguistic theories. Their concept of truth also changed
my entire religious persona. I went from being a Christian
missionary to an atheist.
When
did you stop believing?
In
various stages. I arrived in Brazil in 1977, and by 1982
I was having serious doubts. Probably by 1985, after I had
spent a year at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
I had no more faith, but I didn't say anything about it
for another 19 years.
Did
you really not tell anyone - not even your wife?
No.
When I did, we ended up getting divorced.
How
did being with the Pirahã change your thinking?
They
lived so well without religion and they were so happy. Also
they didn't believe what I was saying because I didn't have
evidence for it, and that made me think. They would try
so hard to understand what I was saying, but it was obviously
utterly irrelevant to them. I began to think: what am I
doing here, giving them these 2000-year-old concepts when
everything of value I can think of to communicate to them
they already have?
Working
with the Pirahã has landed you in hot water professionally
as well.
Yeah.
I'm in trouble for putting forward theories based on my
studies with the Pirahã that challenge the established
order. One of the most publicised is my claim that they
don't really have fixed words for numbers or colours. Worse
still, I cannot find recursion in their language - the way
we embed sentences containing other statements or concepts
within sentences.
This
seems to conflict with the views of Noam Chomsky, one of
the fathers of linguistics.
Yes.
Chomsky and I have had long discussions, and somewhere in
the conversation he's going to say: if you're right, there's
no difference between my granddaughter and a rock; rocks
don't learn language, so obviously the ability to acquire
language is inbuilt. Chomsky's approach is that we have
innate knowledge of a basic grammatical structure, or syntax,
that is common to all human languages. Using a limited set
of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms, we can produce
an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have
never been uttered before. For him, the killer argument
is that without it, children could not acquire their native
languages very quickly - hence the line about his granddaughter
and the rock. Recursion is the reason that there are unlimited
possible utterances in any language, so it must exist in
all languages.
Why
does it matter if Chomsky is wrong?
If
he is wrong, it shows that the human ability to communicate
is not reducible to the kind of "mathematical"
system that Chomsky envisions. It means that language is
something we gain by interacting with our fellow human beings,
people who share our culture with us. I'm claiming that
culture shapes grammar, that it can even affect the nature
of what Chomsky called "core grammar" - the part
of grammar that's supposed to be innate. If it's innate,
it can't be affected by culture. I say it can.
Are
you a lone voice?
No. Geoffrey Pullum and Barbara Scholz of the University
of Edinburgh, UK, wrote a recent paper where they laid out
what they consider to be severe confusion in the approach
of Chomsky and his adherents. They argue that no one can,
in principle, demonstrate that any human language is infinite
- a core attribute of human language for Chomsky and his
followers. All we can say is that for many languages, such
as English, the most efficient grammar acts as though the
language were infinite. That doesn't mean the language is
in fact infinite.
So
where do you think language comes from?
I
think there could be different sources, none of which involves
universal grammar. We're smart and we have big brains; we
can remember stuff and we can process information differently
from other animals. Human beings evolve in social groups
and they have to be able to point out objects to one another
and to say something about those objects. There has to be
hierarchical organisation of the information that's transmitted.
But there is no need for recursion or hierarchical organisation
to be a property of language per se - though it must be
a property of the brain. If I'm right, all brains have recursion,
but not all languages do.
Why
wouldn't a language have recursion if the brain has it?
It
could be for cultural reasons or because of other functional
pressures. The Pirahã live almost entirely in the
present (New Scientist, 18 March 2006, p 44) so they have
much less need for the complexity that recursion provides.
I think I've shown that the Pirahã use recursive
reasoning - for example in their stories - but you don't
find recursion at the level of grammar. Others have proposed
that recursive structures evolve from the kind of structures
that the Pirahã have - that they represent an earlier
state - so there's nothing really unusual about Pirahã
language.
Does
that imply they are less evolutionarily advanced than other
people?
How
do you evaluate "less advanced": does it mean
they're stupid, or that their language perfectly fits their
cultural needs and constraints? If you see that their language
works exactly right in the cultural context and ecological
mix in which they find themselves, then there is no sense
in which they're inferior. When Pirahã have been
kidnapped and raised outside the village, they do just fine
and even speak Portuguese, with plenty of recursion. So
there's no sense they're biologically inferior or stupid.
When I walk with them in the jungle, the Pirahã think
I'm incredibly stupid because I don't know my way back to
the village, and I can't recognise the behaviour of different
animals, or kinds of trees. I have no idea of what they
can be used for. Any Pirahã child knows all this
stuff.
Would
linguists do a better job if they got to know the people
who speak the languages they are studying?
Field
research is a vital part of being a linguist, and if language
and culture really are interconnected in the way I'm saying,
you can't find that out by reading articles in your office.
That includes Chomsky - I think he should have done more.
Fieldwork is where the bulk of the lessons we're going to
learn are. Recently, Steve Pinker said that we all know
culture doesn't affect grammar in the way I say it does.
I find that surprising when no one has investigated it.
Has
Chomsky changed his view at all?
In
a sense. He doesn't believe in all those specific rules
he has proposed over the years, but he still believes grammar
cannot be derived from any other cognitive capacity, and
stands alone as a module of the brain that is encoded purely
by genes. This is not going to change.
You
have been branded a racist. Why?
It
happened late in 2006. Brazilian river traders have said
the Pirahã act like monkeys and talk like chickens,
and I quoted them on a website somewhere. Maybe I wasn't
clear enough in condemning them for saying that. The people
who made these criticisms of me know very well I don't believe
it, but they wrote to the Brazilian government. I don't
know what's behind it. I called some of my friends in the
government and they said there's a full investigation going
on and that the new powers in Brasilia want to block my
access to the Pirahã until this gets straightened
out.
I
have permanent residence in Brazil so they can't bar me
from going there, but when I leave, the rumours start up
again and I don't even know about them until they're so
far along it's difficult to address them. This has to be
sorted if any continuing research is going to be done, and
it's really crucial that it is.
What
sort of a relationship do you have with the Pirahã?
I
count them as some of my very best friends. They are wondering
why I'm not there right now. The last time I left, one of
the young men said: "I really like you, please don't
leave, just stay here." Part of that is because I have
medicine, but part of it is because I'm the only foreigner
they know that just sits around and can talk to them.
Did
your children play with the Pirahã children?
My
daughters would take off in the morning in a canoe with
Pirahã girls and be gone from almost sunup to sundown
many times. And my son Caleb had his own little bow and
arrow and would run off playing with the Pirahã children
all day. They could all speak Pirahã at one time,
but after many bouts of malaria we stopped taking them quite
so much.
Now
they don't know what to make of all the controversy. I have
a daughter who's in Brazil and she's always being told:
"You're the daughter of that racist guy." Caleb
is assistant professor of anthropology at the University
of Miami in Florida, and he's done five years of his own
fieldwork on another language in Brazil. He's the best linguist
in the family. He grew up in the village, so this is all
second nature to him - the fieldwork and figuring out these
languages.
It
sounds like you were a close family in the Pirahã's
village.
Yeah,
and that makes it very difficult because now two of my children
aren't speaking to me. They're all very strong believers.
My son is very intelligent, he knows all the arguments around
Christianity, but he's still a theist. He thinks I've made
a fundamental error in abandoning that, and this is very
painful.
Do
you think they'll come around to your way of thinking? Can
you make amends in their eyes?
No,
I don't know how. They clearly all love me but they just
don't think it's healthy for me to be around them or their
children.
What
does the future hold for you?
I
have enough data collected on the Pirahã to occupy
me and any number of researchers for years to come, so I'm
trying to get funding to get it all onto the web, so people
can do their own experiments with it and listen to the hundreds
of hours of the language being spoken or sung. And I just
got married again.
Do
you ever think you might be wrong about the Pirahã?
I
admit the possibility, but I don't lie awake at night because
I have done my very best. I've been honest about what I
have claimed. The only thing that would keep me awake at
nights is if I felt guilty that I had fibbed about something
and was going to be found out. I think that what we need
is more research programmes that look for exactly the connection
between culture and grammar that I'm talking about.
What
are you most proud of?
Oh,
my three children.
The Human Brain - With one hundred billion nerve cells,
the complexity is mind-boggling. Learn more in our cutting
edge special report.
Profile
Daniel Everett is chair of linguistics, languages and cultures
at Illinois State University at Normal. His upcoming book
is Don't Sleep, There Are Jaguars (Random House and Profile
Books, 2008). He and his family are the only non-Pirahã
who currently speak Pirahã.
Related
Articles
A people lost for words
http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18925431.500
18 March 2006
Review: The stuff of thought by Steven Pinker
http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19626241.900
3 October 2007
Is there a language problem with quantum physics
http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19726373.300
5 January 2008
What really makes us human?
http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg19526196.300
1 September 2007
Weblinks
Dan Everett's home page
http://www.llc.ilstu.edu/dlevere/
Dan Everett on the Edge website
http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/everett07/everett07_index.html
Dan Everett's paper on the Pirahã
http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Publications_2005_PDF/Commentary_on_D.Everett_05.pdf
Response to Dan Everett's paper on the Pirahã
http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/@LWfLoiuxCuCtUsbt/KSXDpEdf?236
New Yorker article on Dan Everett
http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_colapinto
From issue 2639 of New Scientist magazine, 19 January 2008,
page 42-44
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Printed on Thu Jan 24 14:20:29 GMT 2008